Individual Psychology Theory of Adler

Individual Psychology Theory of Adler ALFRED ADLER AND INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction Biography Alfred Adler was born in February 7, 1870 in the suburbs of Vienna. He was the third child and second son of a Jewish grain merchant. During his childhood, Alfred made developed rickets which limited from walking. When he was five years he nearly died from pneumonia. During this age Alfred decided to become a doctor. He was an average student and preferred playing outdoors. He was popular, outgoing and active and was known for his efforts of outdoing his elder brother. Alfred received a degree in medicine from University of Vienna in the year 1895. During his college he was attached to socialist group of students among which he met his wife Rassia Timofeyewna Epstein a social activist and an intellectual from Russia and studied in Vienna. They married in the year 1897 and they finally had four children of which tow became psychiatrists. Alfred started his medical career as an apthamologist but soon changed general practice establishing his office in the lower class region of Vienna. His clients comprised of circus people (Bottome, 1998, p. 5). He changed his career to psychiatry and in the year 1907 he was invited in a Freuds group discussion. After writing papers on organic inferiority which was compatible to views of Freud, Alfred wrote the first paper on aggression instinct which was not approved by Freud. He wrote another paper on childrens feelings of inferiority which suggested that Freuds sexual ideas should be taken more metaphorically than literally. Adler was named the president of Viennese Analytic Society by Freud and a co-editor of newsletter of the organization; he did not stop his criticism. They organized a debate between Freuds and Adlers supporters leading to Adler having nine members of the organization resigning to form another organization of the Society for Free Psychoanalysis. This organization became the Society for Individual Psychology in the next year. During the First World War, Alfred served as a physician for the Austrian Army in the childrens hospital and on Russian front. He witnessed the f irst damage did by the war which changed his thought increasingly to the concept of social interest. Alfred felt that, humanity should survive and it had to change its ways. After the First World War, Adler was involved in different projects like clinics attached to schools of the nation and teachers training. In 1926, Alfred went to the United States to lecture and he finally accepted a visiting position at Long Island College of Medicine. Alder and his family left Vienna forever in 1934. Alfred died of heart attack during his series of lecturer at Aberdeen University on May 28, 1937 (Way, 1956, p. 25). The Theory Adler suggested a motivating force or a single drive behind all peoples experiences and behaviors. By the time his theory had gelled almost in mature form, Alfred named the motivating force striving for perfection. This is the peoples desire to fulfill their potentials, come closer and closer to their ideals. This is almost familiar to the more popular self-actualization of ideas. Ideal and perfection are words which are troublesome but they are positive goals. Should not people be striving for the ideal? In psychology, people are given instead a suggestion. Ideals and perfection are practically by definition and things which cannot be reached. Many people live very painful and very sad lives while trying to be perfect. Alfred sees a negative type of idealism as a pervasive of more positive understanding. Striving for perfection was not Adlers first phrase but he used it to refer to his single motivating force. Adlers earliest phrase was aggression drive referred to the reaction peo ple have when other drives like what they want to eat, sexual satisfaction, get things done, are frustrated and be loved. This can be better called assertiveness drive since people tend to think of aggression as negative and physical. It was the idea of Adler on aggression drive which caused disagreement between him and Freud (Way, 1992, p. 102). Freud was afraid that, this disagreement would detract them from the important position of sex drive in the psychoanalytic theory. Regardless of Freuds dislike on the idea, he introduced something alike later in his life known as the death instinct. Adler also used striving to overcome or compensation to refer to the basic motivation. Since all people have problems, inferiorities and short-comings, Adler felt in his earlier writings that peoples personalities can be accounted for in a way which would compensate or to overcome the problems. The idea still plays a significant role in Adlers theory. Adler used masculine protest after noting something pretty obvious on his culture in which boys were given more preference than girls. Boys desperately wanted to be though of be thought as aggressive, strong and in control. This argument was based on the notion that, men were somehow better than women. They thought that, men had the power and education which is basically the motivation and talent required to do better things which women cannot (Handlbauer, 1998, p. 95). Adler did not see the mens assertiveness and success as a result of instinctive dominance. According to him, there was a reflection of the fact that boys were encouraged to be assertive in life which discouraged girls. Both girls and boys start their life with protest. Many people misunderstood Adler meaning that men were more assertive which led to limit of the use of his phrase. Adler also used the phrase striving for superiority. Use of this phrase reflected the philosophical root of Adlers ideas. Later Adler used striving for superiority more to refer to the neurotic or unhealthy striving. Adler in his life tried to get the concept down to the psychological level. Jan Smuts influenced Adler an approach which is known as holism. Adler decided to call his approach to psychology as individual psychology. Individual literary meant un-divided. Rather than talking about personal personality, with a traditional sense on internal traits, dynamics, structures and so on, he preferred talk ing about style of life which refers to how one deals with how they live their life, interpersonal relations and how they deal with problems. According to Adler, â€Å"the style of life of a tree is the individuality of a tree expressing itself and molding itself in an environment. People realize a style when they view it against an environment background different from what they expect since each tree has its mechanical pattern to respond to the environment (Hoffman, 1994, p. 52). Adler differed again with Freud on lifestyle. Adler viewed motivation as a matter of moving towards the future instead of being driven to the past. People are driven towards their goals, their purpose and their ideals which are known as teleology. Moving things from the past to the future has some remarkable effects. Social interest was another idea on the significance of striving for perfection. On his holism, it is easy to see that everyone who is striving for perfection can hardly do so without considering the social environment. Since people are social animals, they dont exist much less they strive without others and even most determined people-hater forms with detestation in a social context. According to him, social concern was not simply inborn or learned but a combination of both. This is to some extent an innate demonstrated on how babies and small children show sympathy on others without being taught. The aim of Adler was to avoid the idea of social interest which is a ver sion of extraversion. Some people express their social concern through a behavior of being friendly and slapping. Adler meant social concern in terms of feeling in terms of certain social behaviors but in a much broader sense as caring for the community, family, humanity and community even for life. Social concern is a matter of being helpful to others. Lack of social concern is a definition of all failures like drunkards, psychotics, problem children and criminals among others because they lack social interest (Adler, 1999, p. 34). Adler changed psychological determinance grounds from to sex to libido. He has special prominence to societal factors. He argued that, an individual has to struggle or deal with three forces known as love-related, societal and vocational forces. This disagreement determines the final nature of personality. He based his theories on the development of pre-adulthood of individual. His psychology is parallel wit the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow who acknowledged Adlers influence on his theories. Both humanistic psychology and individual psychology hold that, individuals who are human beings are the best determinants of their own desires, needs, growth and interests. The theory of defeat, compensation and over-compensation were derived by Adler. According to him, individuals derive their personality characteristics from the important external factors. Individual characters are formed by their reaction on their influence to compensation, resignation and over-compensation. In com pensation, when an individual suffers from any difficulty, their main objective is to bring those drawbacks to an end making them inferior to others. Those with the potential to this are successful in their lives on both individual and social basis (Dreikurs, 1994, p. 127). Resignation is for those individuals who give their drawbacks and become reconciled to them. These kinds of people are in many. The attitude of the world toward them is cool and quite uninterested understanding. Over-compensation is where some people become so obsessed with the idea of recompense for their problems. External factors are important in formation of characters. Alfred holds the main motives of human behavior and thought as individual strive for power and superiority partly in compensation for their inferiority feeling. Each individual is unique according to this view and their personality structure with the unique goals and striving ways finds an expression on their style of life which is the product of their creativity. However, individuals cannot be considered as different from the society, all important problems including general human relations, love, and occupation problems are social (Watts, 2003, p. 67). Adlers theory led to explanation of the psychological abnormality and normality although the normal person who has a well developed social interest will recompense by determining on the helpful side of life which is by contributing to the common inferiority feeling. The neurotically disposed individual is characterized by increased superiority feeling, exaggeration, underdeveloped social interest, and uncooperative superiority goal which are signs anxiety and less open aggression. This person solves problems in a private fashion, self-centered resulting in failure. All kind of maladjustments share this collection. Therapy involves offering the patient with insight on mistaken life-style through materials furnished by him in the interview with a psychiatric (Slavik and Carlson, 2005, p. 241). According to Adler, inferiority people pull towards perfection, fulfillment and self-actualization. Failures ends up being unfulfilled, being far from self-actualization and badly imperfect. Due to lack of self interest or putting something in positive form people will be excessively self-interested. According to him, being besieged by inferiority is by feeling competent, doing well, affording to think of others. All individuals suffer from inferiority like Adler suffered from organ inferiority. Many people react to organic inferiorities through compensation. People make their deficiencies in a different way. The inferiority organ can be strengthened and become stringer than others. Individuals can psychologically compensate their problems by developing particular skills or even specific personality styles. Many people are not in a position to handle their problems and they live lives of silent depression. People optimism and society which is up-to-beat seriously undervalues their n umbers. Many people have psychological inferiorities. There is also general type of inferiority mainly the natural inferiority mainly found in children. Children are naturally weaker, smaller, intellectually competent and less social compared to adults around them. Children have something in common. They have the desire to grow up, be adult and be big. This type of compensation is in fact similar to striving for perfection. Many children have the feeling that, other people always are better than them. If an individual is besieged by inferiority forces whether it is hurting the body, those people around are holding the contempt or the general difficulties are growing up. This develops inferiority complex (Adler, 1964, p. 273). According to Adler, due to inadequate social interest, different types can be differentiated using energy levels. The ruling kind which is from childhood is characterized by the tendency to be quite dominant and aggressive over others. Their energy which involves the strength to strive for their personal power is great and they push anything or anybody getting in their way. Leaning type is among those people who are sensitive and have developed a shell around themselves which is protects them but they have to depend on others to deal with problems in their life. These individuals have low level of energy and they became reliant. When they are overwhelmed, they develop what they normally think of neurotic symptoms which depend on individual lifestyle details. The avoiding type has the lowest energy level and they survive by basically avoiding life. When they are pushed to restrictions they become psychotic which finally retreats to their own worlds. The socially useful type is for th e healthy person who has both energy and social interest. Without energy, one cannot really have self interest since they are not in a position in fact do anything for anyone (Adler, 1999, p. 54). The individual psychology of Alder has some basic assumptions. The individual psychology is a system of practices and theories which is established upon cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic and existential principles. â€Å"All behavior has social meaning.† Adler was different from assumption of Freud that â€Å"human behavior is motivated by sexual instinct†. Assumption of Adler is that human behavior is aggravated by social desires and human beings are intrinsically social beings. Adler substituted interpersonal relationship form for interpersonal â€Å"id-ego-superego† personality pattern of Freud. Alder gives a humanistic and optimistic view of life which considers human beings as greatly in a position to co-operate in order to live jointly and struggle for self development, contribution to ordinary welfare and self-fulfillment. Without cooperation, people can wipe out each other. Adler based his psychology on main concept of self interest.  "Adlerian psychology is a social psychology which individuals always see and understand within the social context (Hoffman, 1994, p. 67)†. Another assumption is that, human personality has guiding and unity themes. This implies that, a person is an indivisible unit and requires understanding as a total person in which the feelings, thoughts, dreams, actions and memories are even psychology leading to the same direction. Individual is a system in which the whole greater than different from the parts. Adler sees the agreement of individual in whose behavior is a consistent theme. Another assumption is that, behavior is a function of biased insight. Developing a guiding theme is a creative and an active process in which person attributes the meaning of life experiences they have faced. They constructs out this raw materials subjective to reality to which they react. It is not experiences of childhood which is important but present understanding of these events. All behaviors are determined. Adler maintained that all behaviors is focused and goal-directed, although people may not be always deliberately conscious their moti ves. If individuals have the potential they need to develop or use, they lack an action which serves the purpose. Use is more significant than control. Persons are not submissive victims of environment and heredity but energetic constructors and interpreters of their theme (Dreikurs, 1994, p. 135). Another assumption is striving for important explanation on motivation. Adler found that, due to initial helplessness, an infant experiences inferior and struggles to conquer a feeling of incompletion by determining for higher level of growth. Inferior feeling and compensation for the feeling is the dynamic motivation principle which moves an individual from one level growth to another. This striving may continue through out our life. The procedure begins in infancy as children become aware of their insufficiency, mainly when comparing with other children and adults. Infancy experience what is described by Adler as â€Å"minus situation.† The feeling of inferiority becomes a motivation for striving towards â€Å"plus situation.† Adler held that, individuals are not always directed to their dealings by realism but always by fiction. The concept of final goal by Adler which is a fictional creation, an imagined idyllic condition which directs the present individual a proc ess known as private logic as stated by Adler (Adler, 1999, p. 45). Conclusion Individuals can develop exaggerated inferiority feeling and strive towards an imagined goal of inferiority and avoiding the real test. The community feeling and the final goals of co-operation are better than the final goal which is egocentric. This would reveal power concern, self-interest, withdrawal and avoidance. According to Adler, the approach to life with individual traits, the style if life and the unique way in which each person tries to recognize their fictional final goals and meets or avoids the three main task of life; intimate relationship, community and work. In early childhood the life style is formed and in a unique and develop the same styles. Healthy persons deal with life tasks more flexible. This can find ways of solving problems and in case one is blocked, they can choose one another and the individual who is disturbed who individually insist on one way. List of References Adler, A. (1999), The individual psychology of Alfred Adler, New York: Harper Torch books Adler, A. (1964), Superiority and social interest: a collection of later writings. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press Bottome, P., (1998), Alfred Adler a biography, G. P. Putnams Sons: New York Dreikurs, R., (1994), An introduction to individual psychology, London New York: Routledge, ISBN 0415210550 Handlbauer, B. (1998), The Freud Adler controversy, Oxford, UK: One world Hoffman, E. (1994), The drive for self: Alfred Adler and the founding of individual psychology. New York: Addison-Wesley Co Slavik, S. Carlson, J. (Eds.), (2005), Readings in the theory of individual psychology, New York: Routledge Watts, R. E. (2003), Adlerian, cognitive, and constructivist therapies: An integrative dialogue, New York: Springer Way, L., (1992), Adlers place in psychology. London: Allen Unwin Way, L., (1956), Alfred Adler An Introduction to his psychology, London: Pelican

The Legalization of Marijuana :: Illegal Drugs Substances Essays

The Legalization of Marijuana The purpose of this paper is to discuss marijuana and compare the issue of legalizing it from both sides. We have two factions fighting each other, those who are pro-marijuana and those who are anti-marijuana. These two factions have been fighting on this issue in the halls of justice for years. Pro marijuana legalization groups such as the Physician's Association for AIDS Care and the National Lymphoma Foundation argue that Marijuana should be legalized in order to treat terminally ill patients. Among them are AIDS victims who find that marijuana stimulates their appetites so they can fight off dangerous emaciation, glaucoma sufferers who said it has prevented them from going blind, and cancer patients for whom it alleviates the severe nausea that often accompanies chemotherapy and sometimes makes lifesaving treatment impossible. Due to all these, lobbying groups which show substantial evidence that marijuana can be used as a prescribed drug. Many advocates who are pro marijuana complain that morphine and cocaine are legal and very dangerous drugs, which brings up the question "why not legalize marijuana as a medical drug" when it is proven safer than cocaine and morphine. Lobbying groups in San Diego, California, unanimously voted to urge president Bill Clinton and congress to end federal restrictions against the use of marijuana for " legitiment medical use". City council women Christine Kehoe said she wanted the city of San Diego "to go on the record we support the medical use of marijuana. Marijuana can be a drug of necessity in the treatment of AIDS, glaucoma, cancer and multiple sclerosis". Many agencies, which are anti marijuana such as, the Drug Enforcement Agency and police departments argue that marijuana shouldn't be legalized. These agencies believe that if marijuana is to become legal, then there will be thousands of more patients using marijuana. Then people will raise the question of "why is marijuana even illegal at all, if its a medicine". The main reason why the Drug Enforcement Agency doesn't want marijuana to be legalized is because their is no hard core evidence that proves marijuana is an effective drug as a medicine. In twenty years of research, there has been no reliable scientific proof that marijuana has any medical value. The American Cancer Society , American Glaucoma Society, the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, the American Academy of Ophthalmology, and the American Medical Association , say that their is no evidence that marijuana is a medicine.

Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” Essay

Samuel Taylor Coleridge presents a complex web of themes and symbols within the seemingly simple plot line of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. The story of the seafarer with the ‘glittering eye’ (1.13) and his puzzling tale at sea told to an unwilling listener, the Wedding Guest, unfolds into a multifaceted array of planned sequences, heavy religious undertones, and hints at a biographical account of Coleridge’s past. If one reads The Rime of the Ancient Mariner simply as a tale at sea, the poem stands as a remarkable one with its continuous simple rhyme scheme and easy flow of speech. And if one reads deeper into the intricate symbolism, themes and significant subject matter, Coleridge’s masterpiece becomes even more brilliant. An examination of the poem on both levels proves Coleridge’s genius. The plot line is told in the third person and is about the Mariner’s first person account of his trip at sea. A narrative effect is accomplished with this choice, and although it takes away from the poetic feel, it gives the poem a more story-like flow. Characters include a protagonist, the Mariner, and a listener, the Wedding Guest, presumed to be the audience. Coleridge introduces his tale by describing the old, gray-headed sailor who approaches three young men headed for a wedding celebration and compels one of them, the groom’s next-of-kin, to hear his story. At first the intrusion is resented, but the sailor’s story becomes remarkably compelling. The listener falls captive to the building suspense, responding with fear, and later with horror as the tale unfolds. The Mariner tells of a storm at sea, how he and his crew were blown off course towards the South Pole, and how a good omen, an albatross, came to guide them back to the north. But the good omen soon turns into a nuisance. The Mariner shoots it, bringing bad luck to the ship and crew, as he showed no regard for living things. Death and his mate, Life-in-Death, come to the ship and battle over who will control. Death wins the ship; Life-in-Death wins over the Mariner, sparing his life, but giving death as the crew’s fate. For seven days and seven nights the Mariner is forced to confront the open, accusing eyes of his dead shipmates. He curses the sea creatures that squirm around him, proving to Life-in-Death that the Mariner has not learned  his lesson. Only when the Mariner praises the living things, when he â€Å"blessed them unaware†, (1.285) is the curse broken. Spirits then fill the bodies of his dead crewmates, and the ship sailed homeward. Soon the spirits depart and are replaced by â€Å"A man all light, a seraph man†(1.490) that shines light on the homeland. A small rescue boat comes alongside the Mariner’s ship and a loud noise rushes through the water, splitting and sinking the boat, throwing the Mariner into the sea. He is brought into the boat and the sight of him terrified everyone in it. The rescue boat reached shore and the Mariner runs to the Hermit of the Wood to beg for forgiveness from his sin. â€Å"What manner of man art thou?† (1.577) said the Hermit, which sparked a recount of the Mariner’s story in order to free him of the sin. The Mariner concludes his account to the Wedding Guest by saying that ever since the Hermit’s blessing, he has been obliged to travel from land to land, never knowing when the agony of remembrance might return. But whenever the curse again darkens his soul, he recognizes the face of a man with whom he must share his message of love and reveren ce for God’s creation. Basic analysis of the poem classifies it as a lyrical ballad. Although it can be seen as an almost miniature epic, the stanza form and meter follow that of a ballad. Coleridge uses four line stanzas with rhyme scheme â€Å"acbc† in the seven part poem and rotates the number of syllables in each line of the stanza, starting with a multiple of four, then three, and four, then three. Although there are a few irregular meters, as the 12th stanza in Part I and the 3rd in Part II have six lines each, there is a continued simple rhyme and flow throughout. Heavy usage is on a more complex internal rhyme, for example â€Å"And through the drifts the snowy clifts† (1.55) and â€Å"A speck, a mist, a shape, I wist!† (1.153). Coleridge uses repetition often in the poem as well. The repetition can be seen clearly in the first few stanzas of Part III, where â€Å"weary† is used three times in the first stanza, â€Å"wist† is repeated (II. 152, 153), â€Å"When throats unslaked, with black lips baked† (II.157, 162), and â€Å"A sail! a sail!† is cried in line 161. Often, the repetition is used for completion of the line’s allotted syllable number, as in the case of â€Å"See! see!† in line 167, but other instances Coleridge uses the repetition to add to the effect.  The seafarer is completely alone in the beginning of Part IV, and in the third stanza this is expressed by the reiteration of â€Å"Alone, alone, all alone† / â€Å"Alone on a wide wide sea!’ (II.232, 233), which emphasizes the solitary scenery. The poem has hints of alliteration throughout, often intertwined within the internal rhyme. â€Å"Hold off! Unhand me, graybeard loon!’ / â€Å"Eftsoons his hand dropped he† (II. 11, 12) and â€Å"The western wave was all aflame† (1.172) are examples. Furthermore, Coleridge uses these techniques of rhyme, repetition and alliteration to set the pace and the passing of time. â€Å"For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky† 91.250) reads slowly, expressing a slowing down of time, as the Mariner’s weariness seems to last forever. The rhetoric used is plain statement, as the Mariner is telling his ‘true’ tale of his trip at sea. Literally, the poem is a story, with descriptive details. Figuratively, however, deeper meanings can be observed. Religious connotations, mainly those found in Christian belief, are abundant throughout the poem. From the specific numbers used to show passage of time to the many symbols and representations, biblical references abound. First in the poem, the ship symbolizes the body of man. It is affected by the trials and tribulations of the sea, as humanity is affected by life’s trials. But is can also be steered, by the Mariner, who represents one’s soul. However, the fate of the ship is ultimately determined by the wind and currents in the sea. The resurgence of the ship after the death of the albatross, a skeleton ship this time, represents man’s emptiness without Christ. In Christianity, the body is dead and empty without accepting Christ; the ship that appeared carried Death and Life-in-Death, an obvious corollary. The wind represents the Holy Ghost, also guiding the ship on course. Even deeper into Christian beliefs is the possibility that the Mariner exemplifies Cain, a man found in the Bible in the book of Genesis. Cain killed his brother, as the Mariner killed the albatross, and both had to deal with the consequences of their actions. The most apparent symbol, however, is the albatross’ representation of  Christ. The albatross is killed by a cross-bow, symbolic of the cross that Christ died on. And the Mariner wore the bird around his neck, much like a crucifix: â€Å"Instead of the cross, the Albatross† / â€Å"About my neck was hung† (11.141, 142). Acceptance of Christ in Christianity is the one chance of getting to heaven; the albatross was the ship’s one chance at finding the way from the icy death of the sea. With the absence of the albatross, the ship came upon stagnant water. Nothing was directing the ship. Continuing this symbolism is the South Pole as a representation of Hell. The albatross was leading the aimlessly drifting ship from the South Pole’s direction, as Christ leads man to heaven. Therefore, the Mariner’s â€Å"own countree† (1.468) represents heaven, the final destination. When he reaches home( heaven), the body (ship) must die, therefore the ship sinks. When the Pilot and his boy see the ship sinking, they act as angels to retrieve the newly departed soul and carry it to heaven. Since the albatross is dead, representing Christ as one of the three parts of the Trinity, the Hermit is the â€Å"resurrected† Christ that comes to take the sin away from the Mariner. The symbolism of Christ is recurrent throughout the poem. God is also seen through the Sun and Moon. The Sun acts as God’s law constantly over the Mariner: â€Å"Nor dim nor red, like God’s own head† / â€Å"The glorious Sun uprist† (II. 97, 98), and the Moon is symbolic of the redemptive, loving God that comes to help the Mariner, as is seen with the Hermit and his forgiveness. Other significant Christian symbols are the numbers 7 and 3 used throughout the Bible and in Coleridge’s work. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is told in seven parts. Seven is the number of days it took God to create the earth in Genesis. The Mariner also â€Å"lay afloat† (1.553) for seven days until the Pilot’s boat picked him up. And, for seven days the Mariner saw the curse in his dead crewmate’s eyes. Three represents the Trinity and the number of days after Christ died before His resurrection. When Death-in-Life wins the battle over Death in Part III, she â€Å"whistles thrice† (1.198). The saviors of the Mariner from the sea, namely the Pilot, his boy and the Hermit, represent the three bodies of Christ: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. All of these symbols add to the theme of guilt and repentance in the poem. Coleridge is portraying the struggle within oneself after committing a crime, and the lingering question of when the guilt will pass. By telling the story to another, even an unreceptive audience, the removal of guilt and heavy burden is realized. The Wedding Guest leaves at the conclusion of the poem â€Å"A sadder and a wiser man† (1.624), proving the Mariner’s tale had an effect on him. And the Mariner was able to rid himself of the guilt of his sin by following the Hermit’s request to tell his story. Just as obvious is the theme that relates the Mariner to the story of Adam and Eve and their realization of the knowledge of good versus evil. Anthropological discussion of the dualistic mindset of humans (â€Å"us against them†) that begins with the story of Adam and Eve can be used to describe the theme in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. The Mariner’s act of killing the albatross is symbolic of his belief that humans are above animals; animals are the ‘other’ and thus easily disposed of. Although Adam and Eve did not actually physically ‘kill’ anything in the Garden of Eden, their eating of the Forbidden Fruit removed them from the group of animals that knew neither good nor evil thus eliminating their sense of well-being and happiness. Another parallel can be drawn from the fact that all the crewmates suffered from the Mariner’s lone mistake, as all mankind is said to suffer from the mistake of Adam and Eve. Another important comparison is the role of the snake in both the poem and in Genesis. The snake is considered to be the reason for the fall of man, as Adam and Eve fell from God’s grace in the garden after taking the snake’s advice. In The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, the Mariner must bless the snakes (â€Å"loving and forgiving them that spitefully use you†) before  the curse is removed. The Mariner had to stoop to the lowest level, ironically praising the means associated with man’s fall, in order to ascend. The theme of newly found independence can also be seen within the poem. Still within religious connotations, it is clear that the Mariner made a transition from dependence to a new, enlightened independence. His act of killing the albatross removed him from the dependence on the ship and the  bird. However, all alone, he realizes that some sort of dependence is necessary, and acknowledges the importance of spiritual guidance. The characterization of the Wedding Guest, as he is about to engage in a dependent relationship before being stopped by the effects of the Mariner’s story, imparts the message that independence is more desirable than dependence. â€Å"He went like one that hath been stunned† / â€Å"And is of sense forlorn:† / â€Å"A sadder and a wiser man† (II.622, 623, 624) show that the Wedding Guest, although saddened by the knowledge, was enlightened by the Mariner’s truth, and chose to walk away from the bridegroom’s door. Critics question whether Coleridge wrote this poem in response to occurrences in his own life. He was known to have an addiction to opium, the onset of which began when he was a patient at Christ’s Hospital, as it was the administered pain medication. He was said to be haunted by this addiction, the guilt possibly being the same guilt felt by the Mariner. Following the theme of dependence in the poem, Coleridge may have presented himself as the Mariner, initially needing the ship and the crew as he needed the opium. â€Å"Help† from the albatross, which he turned away, could have been early rehabilitation efforts. The struggle to deal without the albatross was finally thwarted as Coleridge accepted the addition (blessing the snakes) and thus accepted help from the Hermit and longed for forgiveness. The haunting and continuous guilt seems to be the lifelong knowledge that he could never truly be free from the addiction to opium, just as the Mariner had to share his story to rid himself of the guilt. Regardless of the many critical analyses of Coleridge’s lyrical ballad, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner proves to be a moralistic story. All can agree that the plot has a lesson to teach, and the Mariner’s rough struggles at sea, and at life, leave him with the burden to inform readers of what life’s lessons he learned. He is troubled by guilt, and has to find someone to listen, to teach. The religious roots run deep within the poem, however Coleridge constructed it so that an in depth study of Christian symbolism is unnecessary to understand his message. Neither is the focus on the significance of numbers or themes needed. In structure alone, the ballad is  an impressive piece. Its’ simplicity and flow make the story of travel an interesting read. Maybe Samuel Taylor Coleridge himself was following his â€Å"Hermit’s† order to release his guilt by writing this poem, and telling it to his readership for his own personal penance, or maybe it is just a lyrical ballad created from his vivid imagination. Nonetheless, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner succeeds in making the extraordinary believable; creating graphic word-pictures, some fraught with horror, others piercing with brief visions of exquisite beauty, but all evoking images so clear and deep they impact the reader’s senses and emotions.

Student t Distribution Table

This table below is a compilation of data from the Student t distribution. Anytime that a t-distribution is being used, a table such as this one can be consulted to perform calculations. This distribution is similar to the standard normal distribution, or bell curve, however the table is arranged differently than the table for the bell curve. The table below provides critical t-values for a particular area of one tail (listed along the top of the table) and degrees of freedom (listed along the side of the table). Degrees of freedom range from 1 to 30, with the bottom row of Large referring to several thousand degrees of freedom. Example of Using the Table A brief example will illustrate the use of the table below.   Suppose that we have a simple random sample of size 11.   This means that we will consult the row with 11 - 1 10 degrees of freedom.   Along the top of the table we have various levels of significance.   Suppose that we have a level of significance of 1%.   This corresponds to 0.01.   This column in the row with 10 degrees of freedom gives us a critical value of 2.76377. This means that in order to reject the null hypothesis, we need a t-statistic that exceeds this value of 2.76377.   Otherwise we will fail to reject the null hypothesis. Table of Critical Values for t Distribution t 0.40 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.0005 1 0.324920 1.000000 3.077684 6.313752 12.70620 31.82052 63.65674 636.6192 2 0.288675 0.816497 1.885618 2.919986 4.30265 6.96456 9.92484 31.5991 3 0.276671 0.764892 1.637744 2.353363 3.18245 4.54070 5.84091 12.9240 4 0.270722 0.740697 1.533206 2.131847 2.77645 3.74695 4.60409 8.6103 5 0.267181 0.726687 1.475884 2.015048 2.57058 3.36493 4.03214 6.8688 6 0.264835 0.717558 1.439756 1.943180 2.44691 3.14267 3.70743 5.9588 7 0.263167 0.711142 1.414924 1.894579 2.36462 2.99795 3.49948 5.4079 8 0.261921 0.706387 1.396815 1.859548 2.30600 2.89646 3.35539 5.0413 9 0.260955 0.702722 1.383029 1.833113 2.26216 2.82144 3.24984 4.7809 10 0.260185 0.699812 1.372184 1.812461 2.22814 2.76377 3.16927 4.5869 11 0.259556 0.697445 1.363430 1.795885 2.20099 2.71808 3.10581 4.4370 12 0.259033 0.695483 1.356217 1.782288 2.17881 2.68100 3.05454 4.3178 13 0.258591 0.693829 1.350171 1.770933 2.16037 2.65031 3.01228 4.2208 14 0.258213 0.692417 1.345030 1.761310 2.14479 2.62449 2.97684 4.1405 15 0.257885 0.691197 1.340606 1.753050 2.13145 2.60248 2.94671 4.0728 16 0.257599 0.690132 1.336757 1.745884 2.11991 2.58349 2.92078 4.0150 17 0.257347 0.689195 1.333379 1.739607 2.10982 2.56693 2.89823 3.9651 18 0.257123 0.688364 1.330391 1.734064 2.10092 2.55238 2.87844 3.9216 19 0.256923 0.687621 1.327728 1.729133 2.09302 2.53948 2.86093 3.8834 20 0.256743 0.686954 1.325341 1.724718 2.08596 2.52798 2.84534 3.8495 21 0.256580 0.686352 1.323188 1.720743 2.07961 2.51765 2.83136 3.8193 22 0.256432 0.685805 1.321237 1.717144 2.07387 2.50832 2.81876 3.7921 23 0.256297 0.685306 1.319460 1.713872 2.06866 2.49987 2.80734 3.7676 24 0.256173 0.684850 1.317836 1.710882 2.06390 2.49216 2.79694 3.7454 25 0.256060 0.684430 1.316345 1.708141 2.05954 2.48511 2.78744 3.7251 26 0.255955 0.684043 1.314972 1.705618 2.05553 2.47863 2.77871 3.7066 27 0.255858 0.683685 1.313703 1.703288 2.05183 2.47266 2.77068 3.6896 28 0.255768 0.683353 1.312527 1.701131 2.04841 2.46714 2.76326 3.6739 29 0.255684 0.683044 1.311434 1.699127 2.04523 2.46202 2.75639 3.6594 30 0.255605 0.682756 1.310415 1.697261 2.04227 2.45726 2.75000 3.6460 Large 0.253347 0.674490 1.281552 1.644854 1.95996 2.32635 2.57583 3.2905