Health economic evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Health economic evaluation - Essay Example The study is given in two sections, appendix A and appendix. Appendix A calculates the cost for a period of 13 weeks and appendix B, the costs incurred for one year. Only patients with baseline anaemia below 11 hg/dl were included in the study. The patients were administered darbepoetin alfa through one arm and r-HuEPO through the other. The dosage of the drugs was as follows. R-HuEPO was administered three times per week and darbepoetin alfa was administered once a week. When calculated for a whole week, the total cost of the drugs remained the same because even though darbepoetin alfa was costlier, its lower dosage helped it to equate its costs with the higher dosage r-HuEPO. The alternative treatment shown is RBC transfusion, though the paper itself suggests that such transfusions are only a temporary measure. The treatment of anaemia using the above two drugs have a long range effect in control of anaemia and hence it can be said that an effective alternative treatment in not included in the study. The above two drugs belong to the class of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs), and at present no other alternative treatments apart from this are currently available in allopathy for treating chemotherapy induced anaemia. â€Å"The search goes on for orally active antianemic therapies, and several strategies are being investigated, although none is imminently available.† (Macdougall). Other alternatives like nutritional supplements like iron are not included in the study probably due to the fact that enough clinically proven studies are not available to warrant its inclusion. Since blood transfusion is not comparable in result with the above men tioned treatment and since no other alternatives were studied, it can be said that no alternative systems of treatment were included in this paper. The study does cost analysis of treatment using the above mentioned drugs and states that darbepoetin alfa is cheaper in the long run,

Death And Dying In Hinduism And Islam Religion Essay

Death And Dying In Hinduism And Islam Religion Essay Death and dying is equally important among all religions. Different religions have different values, beliefs, tradition, social customs and attitude regarding about death and dying. Among all of them, the most common experience is that a persons death always leaves the shadowy moment among all the relatives and the family members. Death is always connected with us and we are at the state of transition. Every living body has to die. However, religion occupies a significance space regarding about death and dying. The religion has its own norms and values to define the death. Among different religions, Hinduism and Islam define death as the period of sorrow even-though Hinduism believes in reincarnation but Islam does not. Hinduism views life as a wheel of salvation while life means a way to meet the almighty Allah in Islam. Thus, two different religions have two different perspectives of viewing life and death depending upon their religions. The Bhagvada Gita also tells about the moral of life and death. During the battle of Kurukshetra, the Pandava brother, Arjuna, has to kill his guru, Dronacharya who taught him the most powerful skill of bow and arrow. Nobody can defeat the Arjuna in archery. Since, Dronacharya belongs to the Kaurava, the Pandava brother Arjuna has to kill his own guru to win the battle of Mahabharata. The Lord Krishna chants poem about birth and living. He said to Arjuna that death in unavoidable to those who are born and birth is certain for those who had died. So, there is no reason to grieve if something in unavoidable. So, death is an inescapable. Death always stands upon its honor in the battle field. It is fair to illuminate the injustice and inequality to obtain the mokshya known as liberation. Thus, the saying of the Lord Krishna to Arjuna provides him a moral sense and knowledge of being born into this universe and reacts upon the essence of justice against immorality. Like in Bhagvada Gita, another holy scripture Ramayana also tells about the significance of death and dying. Bali and Sugriva are the brother of the same blood. Though Sugriva is younger than the Bali, Bali has treated him like a slave. However, Sugriva doesnt argue about the matter. He just wants to take care of him for the whole life. Despite the circumstance, Bali has received a terrific boon after his tough meditation for twelve years. He has a greed upon his bravery and courageous. He has captivated Sugrivas wife Tara for a long period of time. So, Sugriva is frustrated and asked about sharing of the Kiskindha kingdom. But, Bali refused it and threw him out of the kingdom. Sugriva doesnt know what to do. One day, his follower Hanuman found Rama and Arjuna wandering in the dense forest and became closer to each other. Then, Hanuman introduce Rama and Arjuna with Sugriva and Sugriva told the events about how he has to live in mountain despite having the kingdom. So, Rama told Sugr iva to call Bali upon the battle field. Sugriva did the same thing as Rama told to him. After a long battle between Sugriva and Bali, Rama killed Bali by using his archery. Upon his deathbed, Bali asked Rama about his crime. He asked what he has done to him. Who are you to kill him? Why you kill me like a terror? Why dont you show in-front of me? Then Rama replied to Bali that he has done injustice with his brother. Rama told that his father Dasaratha taught him about the moral of law and order and finally for his last question, he replied to him that the kings used to hunt deer by shading in some corners. As soon as the message spreaded over the kingdom, Tara came on the spot and cried and begged his husband back from Rama. Rama told Tara that why are you crying without thinking that the body is dead only not the soul. If you think that the dead body is your husband then why dont you think about his soul? You are on an illusion of body and soul. I respect his soul and he will be pl aced in a higher standard in the heaven. Tara realized that the body only decomposes not the soul. Even, if the person is dead, s/he will be highly recognized into the society for a long period of time. Swami Nikhilananda, the great disciple of Ramayana also said that human being should not worry about the contemporary cause and effect which is known to them. He also added that body can undergo certain metamorphism where the internal reality or the soul doesnt change rather than the illusion known as the Maya creates the desire and identifies as the self. We have to understand that the self in not the Brahmin. Following these two great scriptures, Hinduism is the religion about reincarnation. The state of being human being today is the outcome of the deeds that have been conducted in the past. After several reincarnations, we are human being now. The salvation occurs only by achieving Mokshya and Mokshya can be achieved by learning Karma yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti yoga, taking the path of devotion and learning the Holy Scripture like Bhagvada Gita and the great epic Ramayana. The ultimate way of reaching the supreme goal is to unite with Brahman. Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world. While Hinduism believes in polytheism, Islam believes in monotheism. Islam means submission to the god. Literally, the meaning carries a greater detail. Islam or being a Muslim means high attitude of the self. Islam believes Muhammad as the messenger of the god. The god determines the lifespan of the person. It is the gods mercy to take the person in younger age or in the older age. The Muslim believes that god created them and they have to move according to the way that the god wants. Some Muslim believes that after death, two black faced angels with blue eyes known as Munkar and Nakir visit the graveyard and ask the deceased about his life when he was alive. Upon interrogation, the person has to tell the truth. Depending upon the saying of the deceased, the process of punishment and comfort will be justified. Like in Hinduism, Islam also believes in heaven and hell where heaven means full of beautiful nymphs and the enjoym ent with the spouse while hell means the place with thorns and evil souls. When the person is lying on the deathbed, the priestly people read some passages from the Quran to facilitate the dying body to release from the physical world. After death, washing of the dead body is done and purified by the Moullana, the holy priest. The body is covered with the white cloth. The main difference between the Christianity and the Muslim is that no coffins come between the body and the earth. Building other structures are not allowed in Islam and as well as writing on the stone. Some Muslim believes that the graveyard should be dig deep enough to the dead so that the dead body can be able to sit up during the period of the Last Judgment. The grave is laid in the direction of north to south rather than east to west. The main reason behind doing that is the holy Mosque lies towards east to west. So, the deceased face is pointed towards the Mecca. It is customary to say Allah Karim which means upon the mercy of god we came into this earth and upon the mercy of him, we sh all go. Muslim views their life as a mission into this earth. The main mission is to take care of the whole life seriously as per the commandment of the god. The people have to be physically and as well as mentally fit to take care of the whole life. Spiritually, the people have to keep faith on Allah and strictly obey his saying. According to the Islam, no older person would be the burden into the society. When older person get sick or being incapable of helping themselves, the younger one should take care of them and offer them nutritious foods. The family members of the dead have to fulfill any debts of the deceased person as soon as possible. Just like in Hinduism, Islam also allows offering charity and fasting on the name of the deceased person. The family member can visit the grave to maintain the strong attachment with the deceased and as well as to observe the day of the judgment. According to Islam, death should be properly understood because it is the part of the living. Sometimes, we feel scare of discussing about death and dying because we dont want to die. We are so afraid of it. But, for Muslims, this is not the right attitude against the Allah. The Prophet Muhammad said that you have to live in this world like a traveler. Once come never return back. The destination of the journey is to meet with the almighty Allah. Death is followed by the pain and suffering. Sometimes, people become agony on death and dying. They are pathetic. According to the Allah, pain and suffering is not the curse for the Islam people. It is taken as an assignment to see how people handle it, and how they response upon it. The Quran states that Allah takes the soul at the time of death and those who are in the verdict of dying, Allah come around them and give them the clean cheat letting them to know that its the time to take a journey with Allah. The living and dying process is taken as the action where there is reaction thereafter. The faith of all Islam people is that the body and spirit unite together. So, Islam views death as the process or resurrection. The prophet also stated that being a Muslim means to challenge each and every circumstance that comes into the life. One should be capable of dealing with adversity and success. Whatever happens in life is already fixed and should take a high spirit and calmness to meet with Allah. The prophet also stated that the path towards the heaven is filled with obstacles and difficulties while the path towards the hell is filled with desire. Its up to the people to choose the path of difficulty or the path of the desire. The path of difficulty is filled wi th knowledge, sacrifice, and purity while the path of desire is filled with anger, suffocation, and greed. Molloy, Michael. Experiencing the Worlds Religions: Tradition, Challenge, and Change. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print. DeSpelder, Lynne Ann, and Albert Lee. Strickland. The Last Dance: Encountering Death and Dying. Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2009. Print. Death and Dying. KhutbahBank. Web. 15 Apr. 2011. . http://civic.bev.net/icb/pdf/i43_lad.pdf http://khutbahbank.org.uk/2009/06/death-and-dying-inspirational-khutbah/

Single Parents on Television Essay -- Televison Media TV Essays

Single Parents on Television When we think about television families, it is usually the happy nuclear families with a Mom, Dad, and a couple children. What if that family is not a full family and there is a parental figure missing? Would missing a parent really affect the way a child is raised? The realization of single parent families in everyday households is becoming more and more a reality in the United States, and television shows are relating to this fact. The new trend in television is to have a single Mom or Dad facing the odds of single parenthood, while raising two-to-three kids, working at a full-time job, and still taking care of the household. The Parents Television Council reviewed every original series airing during prime time (8:00-11:00 p.m.) on the broadcast networks during the 2001-2002 television season. The analysis encompassed 119 shows depicting 150 children. Key findings include: 47% live in a traditional family with their married biological parents, 14% are raised by single fathers, and 90% of TV single fathers are widowers. Of the 97 televis...

How Wilfred Owen Presents the Horror of War in Dulce et Decorum est Ess

How Wilfred Owen Presents the Horror of War in Dulce et Decorum est In the First World War people wanted the young men to go to war, but no-one really knew about conditions of the fighting in the war. Wilfred Owen was one of the people who wanted to tell the public what war was really was like. He tried to do that through his poetry. One of his poems "Dulce et decorum est" shows the horror of war very well. We know that Wilfred Owen really does know what he's talking about as he served through most of the war and died shortly before the armistice. I am going to compare "Dulce et Decorum est" with other poems on the horror of war. "Dulce et Decorum est" is short for the Latin saying "Dulce est Decorum est Pro Patria mori" this means, it is a great and wonderful thing to die for one's country. Wilfred Owen tries to tell us that this is the opposite of what war was actually like. "Bent double like beggars under sacks" is how he describes the soldiers returning from the front line. This is not the patriotic view that the public was given. Wilfred Owen shows the horror of war by telling us that the young men in war were acting like old men who had trouble walking and are tired and weary from life. This isn't the image we should have of the young men that are going to protect the country and that they are the people the paper talked about. The poem describes a gas attack and alerts our senses by telling us the effects of the gas attack on a person that fails to put their gas mask on in time. By telling us things like that it alerts our senses and we imagine that we're choking and that it could be us that are choking and that ... ...et Decorum est" experienced, they experienced the direst horrors of 1914 war, they heard the shells dropping, they saw their friends die; they had to live in the trenches. Modern day war doesn't happen like this so the only people left to witness the horrors after they are dead are the family who have lost a son or a father or a brother. The poem is set out simply. It has two stanzas and has a simple rhyming pattern. I think this gives it a very simple understated mood that you would get when a child speaks to you about their day at school. This gives over the affect that war is only sad for those who understand it. The child who is speaking doesn't really understand the concept of war. I am given this impression because the child speaks of everything else first, and then last mentions the girl whose father died.

Davos: the World Economic Forum Essay

Davos is a town located on the Landwasser River, in the Swiss Alps, between the Plessur and Albula Range in Switzerland. At 1,560 meters, it is the highest city in Europe. From the middle of the 18th century, Davos became a popular destination for the ailing because the climate in the high valley was proved excellent by doctors and recommended for lung disease patients. Arthur Conan Doyle wrote an article about skiing in Davos in 1899. In the early 90s, Davos became famous worldwide for hosting the World Economic Forum (WEF), an annual meeting of global political and business elites (often referred to simply as Davos) and the home of one of Switzerland’s biggest ski resorts. Organization is defined as â€Å"an independent international organization committed to improving the state of the world by engaging business, political, academic and other leaders of society to shape global, regional and industry agendas. (World Economic Forum, 2012) These meetings bring together CEOs from the 1000 member companies as well as selected politicians, representatives from academia, NGOs, religious leaders and the media. Around 2200 participants gather for the five-day event and attend some 220 sessions. The discussions focus around key issues of global concern (such as international conflicts, poverty and environmental problems) and possible solutions. In all about 500 journalists from online, print, radio and TV take part, and are furnished with access to all of the sessions, some of which are also webcast. (Davos, 2011) The organization also convenes some six to eight regional meetings each year in locations such as Latin America and East Asia, as well as two further annual meetings in China and the United Arab Emirates. Beside meetings, the foundation produces a series of research reports and engages its members in sector specific initiatives. The Forum was founded in 1971 by Klaus Schwab, a German-born business professor at the University of Geneva, who is currently an Executive Chairman of WEF. Originally named the â€Å"European Management Forum†, it changed its name to the World Economic Forum in 1987 and sought to broaden its vision further to include providing a platform for resolving international conflicts. (Davos, 2012) In the summer of 1971, Schwab invited 444 executives from Western European firms to the first European Management Symposium held in the Davos Congress Centre under the patronage of the European Commission and European industrial associations, where Schwab sought to introduce European firms to American management practices. He then founded the WEF as a non-profit organization based in Geneva and drew European business leaders to Davos for the annual meetings each January. (Davos, 2012)

Compare and Contrast Key Perspectives in Psychology Essay

Psychology literally means the study of the mind, translated from Ancient Greek as psyche, meaning â€Å"mind† or â€Å"soul† and logia, meaning â€Å"study†. The most accurate description of psychology is that it is the science of mind and behaviour (Collin et al, 2011). Psychology evolved from philosophy and can be dated back to the time of Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle (325 BCE). Studying the nature of subjects such as the memory, thoughts and the consciousness, did not make psychology a standalone science, instead it was viewed as a form of philosophical speculations. Psychology became a separate, scientific discipline in the late 19th century. The world’s first experimental laboratory of psychology was founded in 1879 by Wundt. As many philosophers and scientists tried to explain the inner world of a person (psyche) since ancient times, many key perspectives of modern psychology appeared as a result. These key perspectives include: Psychodynamic, Behavioural, Cognitive, Humanistic, Evolutionary, Biological and Cross-Cultural (Cherry, 2014). This essay will explore and compare two of these perspectives, Behaviourism and Psychodynamic, and their influence on modern psychology. The psychodynamic approach is based on the theories of Freud, Adler, Erikson and Jung. Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis. Together with Breuer, Freud developed psychological treatment, known as talking therapies, believing that many forms of mental illness, such as: irrational fears, hysteria, anxiety and imagined pains, were the results of a traumatic experience acquired by the patient in the past. Freud believed that people store their ideas, memories and impulses in the unconscious when they become too overwhelming for the conscious mind to bear, this is known as repression. He believed that the conscious mind is just the surface (likening it to an iceberg) of a complex psychic realm, which included the ego, superego and id. The id is driven only by the fulfilment of basic drives, for example; food, comfort, warmth and sex, and obeys the Pleasure Principle, meaning that each impulse must be gratified immediately. The ego, one the other hand, accepts the Reality Principle, which says we cannot have everything we desire. The ego negotiates with the id and may be compared to the moderator between id and superego (Collin et al, page.111). The  superego is the internal voice, influenced by our parents and the society’s moral code, it is a judging voice of our conscience, which tells us what we should and should not do, and may often become the source of guilt and shame (Collin et al, 2011, pp.94-99). In Freud’s opinion, the difference between conscious and unconscious thoughts creates psychic tension, and that this is how many mental problems originate. Repressed and unprocessed emotions build up and then become revealed in anger, depression, anxiety, alcohol abuse and so on. These problems can be helped by releasing them and confronting them during the process of psychoanalysis. Freud tried to free his patients from repressed memories and ease their mental pain. Dream Analysis was a method which in Freud’s opinion allowed to access and encode messages sent by the unconscious. Despite all of this, even Breuer criticised Freud for concentrating too much on the sexual origins of neuroses (Collin et al, 2011, p.95). The humanistic approach criticised psychodynamics of excluding the thought of free will (McLeod, 2007). Furthermore, today Freud’s interpretation of dreams appears unreasonable to many. In spite of all the criticisms, many accept that Freud highlighted the importance of childhood experiences and his methods inspired many famous psychotherapists to develop new types of treatment. One example includes Virginia Satire, who stresses the importance of the family environment (Collin et al, 2011, pp.146-147). Freud also introduced the idea of defence mechanisms which is widely used today in different therapies. Denial, repression and displacement are some examples of defence mechanisms (Cherry, 2014). In addition, psychodynamics also made the case study method popular in psychology. One of Freud’s eminent theories was about the Oedipus Complex. Freud used his case study known as ‘Little Hans’ to support this theory. Hans was 5 years old at the time and had a phobia of horses. Hans’ father, who was Freud’s friend, wanted Freud to cure Hans from his phobia. Freud was mostly interested in how the phobia was triggered and how it could be linked to his idea of the Oedipus Complex. By analysing Hans’ dreams, Freud ruled out that they boy’s phobia of horses was caused through the fear of being castrated by his father because he had sexual desires for his mother. Freud advised Hans’ father to reassure his son that he would not castrate him and eventually the boy’s phobia resolved. Despite curing Han’s phobia, Freud’s emphasis on the phobia being caused by an underlying fear of his father seems farfetched,  especially when it is known that Hans witnessed how a horse died on the street, an event which traumatised him. This would seem a more plausible reason for the child’s horse phobia, but instead Freud emphasised that this case study was a perfect example of the Oedipus Complex. In addition, Freud didn’t work directly with Hans, almost all of his investigation of the case and all ‘therapeutic work’ occurred through correspondence with Hans’ father, who was Freud’s admirer and friend. (McLeod, 2008). Therefore, this doubts the authenticity of the study. Later, it became obvious that Freud sometimes distorted his patients’ case histories to fit with his theories (Sulloway, 1991). In 1960, Beck exposed the weaknesses of traditional psychoanalysis and proposed cognitive therapy as he could not find any reliable studies proving the success rates of psychoanalysis – only anecdotal evidence of case reports. Furthermore, many psychoanalysts objected scientific examination (Collin et al, 2011, pp.175-177), which brings up the contrasting approach of behaviourism. Behaviourism is based on the works of Darwin, Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. The behaviourism approach suggested that psychology should be treated as a science and must be based on observations, research and experiments (Collin et al, 2011). Is it possible to measure behaviour? Behaviourism stated that it is. In order to do this, behaviourists experimented firstly on animals. Therefore, physiology has had a lot of influence on this approach. In 1890 Pavlov, developed the concept of classical conditioning (Collin et al, 2011). Pavlov introduced such terms as ‘unconditioned’ and ‘conditioned reflex’, ‘response’ and ‘stimulus’ in physiology and psychology. Later some behaviourists switched to experimenting on humans. Yet, it cannot be said that these early experiments on humans were very ethical. With this in mind, one example is that of a case study known as ‘Little Albert’, carried out by Watson (1920), on a nine month old baby, ‘Albert B’. Today his method would arguably be considered unethical and even cruel. However, Watson thought that the experiment was a logical continuation of previous animal studies. The aim of Watson’s experiment was to find out if it was possible to teach an infant to fear an animal by repeatedly presenting it at the same time with a loud, frightening noise, or a stimulus. Watson put the baby on a mattress and then showed him  a dog, a rat, a rabbit and a monkey. Albert showed no fear and his natural instinct was to touch the animals. In this case, the animals were used as a neutral stimulus. In Watson’s opinion, this was a baseline, from which he could measure any change in Albert’s behaviour. Then, Watson started to frighten the child with a loud noise, an unconditioned stimulus, by striking a metal bar with a hammer. Watson then paired the sighting of an animal with a frightening noise, and as a result, each time Albert saw an animal he burst into tears, because his n atural response to the noise – fear and distress – had now become associated with animals. All that was very good from the point of view of Pavlov’s classical conditioning, however today it may be argued that Watson’s experimentation method was unethical. Nevertheless, Watson’s experiment demonstrated that human emotions are susceptible to classical conditioning. This was his new input on Pavlov’s theory, because previous stimulus-response experiments had focused on studying behaviour, not emotions. Later, Skinner published ‘The Behaviour of Organisms’ (1938) and developed the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a form of conditioning in which the outcome depends upon an animal operating upon its environment, such as pressing a lever to obtain food (Collin et al, 2011, p.342). Skinner carried out multiple experiments on animals, studying satisfaction and discomfort. He used positive and negative reinforcers, working with rats and pigeons as well as primary and secondary reinforcers (Jarvis and Russell, 2002). Through his experiments, Skinner proved that behaviour is often shaped not by a preceding stimulus, how it was stated previously in classical conditioning, but instead by the consequences of that behaviour (Collin et al, 2011, p.59). Today, Skinner’s ideas are used in workplace psychology, for example they influenced the method of rewards and incentives. The attractiveness of the reinforcer (incentive) can increase the productivity of workers and it is widely used in different industries. Similarly, operant conditioning has an application in today’s clinical psychology. For example, in the study of depression. Also, self-harming addictions are explained in terms of operant conditioning, which is now often called behaviour modification. Behaviour modification is used in treating mental disorders and in programmed learning. Ghosh and Chattopadhyay used behaviour modification techniques when treating children with ADHD (Jarvis and Russell, 2002). The  Behaviourists’ approach has its’ strengths as it is scientific, their theories are supported by experiments. Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour that can be measured (McLeod, 2007). On the other hand, behaviourism does not consider emotion and thinking. Watson denied the inheritance of capacity, talent, temperament and mental constitution (Collin et al, 2011, p.28). Not all human behaviour can be explained by operant conditioning, which is why Skinner’s ideas are no longer popular with many psychologists today. Behaviourism does not explain complex mental processes, for example that humans often learn by the observation others, not just by punishment and rewards. Furthermore, operant conditioning does not explain the aspects of how hormones and genetic predispositions affect and shape behaviour. However, because Pavlov and Watson successfully trained animals’ and children’s new behaviours through stimulus-response patterns, other researchers understood that if behaviour could be learned, it can also be unlearned. For example, based on that mechanism, Wolpe created treatments for ‘war neurosis’ and phobias (Collin et al, 2011, p.87). How are these two perspectives viewed and applied in psychology today? Behaviourism was always considered as a more scientific, objective approach as compared to psychodynamics. Modern psychology is based on much more empirical, objective evidence than before, due to the efforts of behaviourists. Behaviourists introduced modern methodology, which includes efficient ways to observe, collect data and carry out credible experiments. Watson demonstrated that human behaviour can be predicted, controlled and modified. Unlike behaviourism, Freud’s ideas were based on observation case histories rather than on experimental research. Behaviourism and psychodynamics are similar in their rejection to free will (McLeod, 2007) and their belief that everyone is born ‘tabula rasa’, or as a blank slate (Collin et al, 2011, p.29). Despite this, behaviourists criticised psychoanalysts and vice versa. Freud criticised behaviourism as it did not consider the unconscious. However, Wats on criticised Freud’s idea of unconscious as not provable, because it is unconscious and therefore difficult to access. (Collin et al, 2011, p.94) On the other hand, some of Watson’s methods are now dismissed as unethical. For example, Watson advocated unemotional parenting, which he thought would be beneficial to  children, but later he was largely criticised for his ideas, even by the mother of his own children. Watson grew up with an alcoholic father, and was not shown much attention as a child. Consequently, Watson did not have much empathy to children himself. Virginia Satire later stressed the importance of affection and compassion in creating a healthy family and shaping a successful person (Collin et al, 2011, p.146). Also, behaviourism does not recognise a difference between animals and humans. In contrast, due to Freud, more than 22 different schools of psychoanalysis have evolved from his method. It may be argued now that Freud’s theories were not as scientific as the behaviourist approach, but nobody else influenced 20th century psychotherapy in general as much as he did. Freud started what is now called ‘talking therapies’ (Collin et al, 2011, p.99) For example, Freud’s ideas influenced cognitive therapy and humanistic psychotherapy (Collin et al, 2011, p.91). By the mid-20th century both behaviourism and psychodynamics were being critically examined. Finally, at the end of the 20th century, after all the criticism and controversy, the best of psychodynamics and behaviourism joined together and gave birth to Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). It happened when Wolpe’s behavioural therapy merged with Beck’s cognitive therapy. There is strong empirical evidence for the success of CBT as compared with classical psychoanalysis (Collin et al, 2011, p.176). CBT is widely used today for the treatment of different anxiety and mood disorders (Mà ¥nsson et al, 2013). To conclude, it would be fair to say that both the behaviourism and psychodynamic perspectives have had a vast influence on modern Psychology.

Love for Goodness’ Sake: Plato’s Symposium

Socrates says, â€Å"In a word, then, love is wanting to possess the good forever† (206B). Naturally, it would be my inclination to agree with this statement; however, love is much more complex than Socrates’ definition. Love is the desire to always be happy, and finding goodness is the key to happiness. Love brings the good out of our souls to guide our lives. We search for goodness in love, yet surrendering to love and desire (eros) is what brings out our goodness. The happiness that love provides encourages the individual to be his or her best self, which is how we ultimately live our lives around goodness. Plato’s Symposium teaches this catch-22: in searching for goodness in love, we discover the goodness within our own souls. A person faces choices every day; with every decision there is the option of acting morally or shamefully. Most people aim to make moral choices, but regardless of the decisions people make, every person has an inherent ability to distinguish acting shamefully and morally. Whether this ability is something a person is born with or is developed through education from one’s parents is irrelevant; it’s important to notice that individuals are aware of their acts before they love someone. When someone falls in love—or is overcome by desire—he or she becomes acutely aware of his or her actions and usually makes a conscious effort to make good choices. In seeing the goodness of the ones a person desires, he or she is reminded of the importance of portraying one’s good qualities. This is the heart of Phaedrus’ argument, that â€Å"there is a certain guidance each person needs for his whole life†¦and nothing imparts this guidance†¦as well as Love† (178D). He continues to argue that the best possible society would be full of lovers and their beloveds because all of its members would be constantly aware of being their best selves in the presence of their loved ones. Phaedrus contends that surrendering to eros brings out an individual’s goodness, but he doesn’t address whether this goodness exists when a person is living without Love. Aristophanes discusses his belief that people fall in love when they find the their â€Å"other half† who fills them with a sense of completeness. He tates, â€Å"It’s obvious that the soul of every lover longs for something else; his soul cannot say what it is† yet he pursues the feeling of unity and completeness that love provides (192D). This sense of wholeness comes from finding the goodness within oneself when a person is with his or her matching half. Socrates disagrees with Aristophanes’ argument because he doesn’t know that each person’s other half is good. The concept of having a matching half may provide comfort to some, but it implies that each person should only have a desire for one person. It is very common for people to love multiple people through the course of their lives. Aristophanes may not be incorrect in saying that every soul is searching for its matching half, but the key part of his argument in this context is that when a person finds someone he or she loves, that person feels a sense of fullness. I believe this sense of feeling of fulfillment comes from rediscovering the good within oneself. The argument in the Symposium that most emphasizes this point is that of Socrates. He believes that everyone is pregnant, either physically or mentally. Those who are pregnant physically bear children; this is their way of spreading life and goodness into the world. Those who are have a pregnant soul bear wisdom, creativity and beauty into the world. Both forms of pregnancy leave behind a small piece of goodness and the process of pregnancy proves that this goodness begins within the individual. A woman has most of what is required to make a baby within her body before finding a lover. She has healthy organs that make her body function, and she is capable of maintaining her body. She has eggs in her ovaries that are waiting for a lover to fertilize them. When she finds a lover, his sperm combines with her egg and a beautiful baby develops. Both the man and the woman have all of the ingredients to create offspring, but the unity of the lovers is required to complete the process. In the same way, each individual has wisdom within their souls, but it’s necessary to combine two souls to expose the goodness to society. The process of bringing beauty and wisdom into the world through spiritual pregnancy is more abstract than physical pregnancy, but is equally important. In the same way that a physical lust develops between lovers, souls can crave each other. Socrates states that the soul is drawn to other beautiful and developed souls, and these people connect through intellectually stimulating arguments—they give birth to new ideas and thoughts. He believes that, â€Å"when [a person] makes contact with someone beautiful and keeps company with him, he conceives and gives birth to what he has been carrying inside him for ages. And whether they are together or apart, he remembers that beauty† (209C). Here, Socrates says that the beauty, truth, knowledge, and goodness were all contained within the lover before the relationship was established; it is through dialogue that this beauty is exposed. Being aware of displaying our good behaviors and trying to impress our loved ones can be a good thing, but sometimes one’s heightened awareness of goodness can make him or her feel inferior. When Alcibiades crashes the philosophers’ dinner, he begins his speech of praise for Socrates, but quickly Alcibiades reveals his overwhelming sense of mediocrity when in Socrates’ presence. â€Å"Yes, he makes me feel ashamed,† Alcibiades confesses, â€Å"I know perfectly well that I can’t prove he’s wrong when he tells me what I should do; yet, the moment I leave his side, I go back to my old ways† (216B). Alcibiades believes he will never be good enough for the pious and goodness-filled Socrates. Alcibiades admits that he strives to be his best self in front of Socrates, but he lapses into old habits when they are apart. Alcibiades declares, â€Å"my whole life has become one constant effort to escape from him and keep away, but when I see him, I feel deeply ashamed, because I’m doing nothing about my way of life, although I have already agreed with him that I should† (216B). Therefore, Alcibiades is aware that he has the potential to be good, but he only has the strength to be noble when he’s with Socrates. The tragedy is that Socrates doesn’t want to take Alcibiades as a lover, leaving the latter to suffer through life feeling lonely and inadequate. Alcibiades should remember that he has the power to be moral and display his goodness, which could in turn lead him to another lover. All of the philosophers whose ideas I’ve discussed above reveal that love brings out the good in each of us, but I believe that the good is contained within the individual before exposure to a lover. We seek lovers because we crave the reminder to always be our best selves. We take pride in acting morally, and we feel good when others recognize our good behavior. We have desire for someone when we see his or her beauty and goodness, and we hope to be desired for our goodness as well. When two lovers come together, there is a feel of unity because there’s an understanding that both people will be noble for each other. People are compelled to stay with a lover for the entirety of their lives because they want to continue to be full of goodness. When we are without a lover, we may feel lonely and can lose touch with our internal goodness. We crave love because we need the constant reminder to be our highest selves—the self we are most proud of. Because Love makes us extra aware of our goodness both internally and behaviorally, it’s important to remember that we have the power to be our noblest selves at any time, with or without a lover. Therefore Socrates was right after all: love is the desire to hold on to the good in our lives forever, and being with a lover is the best way to constantly be aware of being our best selves.